Theories and Publications

Gerard-Graham-Ling microelectrode: for some time also known as Ling-Gerard microelectrode, glass capillary microelectrode In 1942. Judith Graham, A. J. Carlson and R. W. Gerard first reported the use of fine-tipped glass capillary electrode for the measurement of the resting potential of frog muscle cells. War slowed down the progress, so that the electric potential as reported in 1946 in Graham's Ph.D. thesis (and elsewhere) varied over the range of 41 to 80 mV, too scattered for quantitative determinations.

The task of improving the technique of making the microelectrode and of filling the electrode with salt solutions fell on G. N. Ling, who as a graduate student under Prof. R.W. Gerard, inherited the project. The efforts paid off so that by 1947, the difficulties in obtaining reproducible quantitative data were overcome. Thus, the resting potentials reported by Ling and Gerard in 1949 obtained with the improved technique was 78.4 ± 5.3 mV from 1350 measurements with Ringer's solution filled electrodes, and 97.6+5.7 mV. from 207 measurements with a 3 M KCl-filled electrodes.

A tool was thus ready to enable the exact measurements of the electrical potentials activities of a vast variety of living cells as well as subcellular organelles.

Heir to the faulted old protoplasm concept, the association­induction hypothesis is aunifying theory of all living phenomena. Introduced half a century ago, the theory has been tested widely and verified without major setback. Five books respectively published in 1962, 1984, 1992, 2001 and 2013 as well as over 200 articles chronicle the details. In this theory, the smallest unit of life is not the cell but a tiny structure called nano­protoplasm unit (NPU). Each NPU can exist inone of two alternative states: (1) In the resting living state, all the major components including water, protein and the potassiumion (K+) are not free(as widely taught in textbooks) but physically and electronically connected directly or indirectly to all the other components. (2)In the active living state, water and Right, Resting NPU; Left, Active NPU K+are set free (transiently.) Each NPU contains, as a rule, only one single protein moleculespecific to its kind of NPU. A typical NPU from the mature human red blood cell is described by the formula: (Hb)1(H2O)7000(K+)20(ATP)1. Hb stands for the characteristic protein, hemoglobin. The subscript attached to each bracketed item refers to the number of that item in one NPU. Each NPU is truly small. A single red blood cell contains 300,000,000 NPU’s. Bulk­phase water polarized and oriented by the fully extended protein partially excludes Na+. Thus in cells like muscle, nerve and red blood cell, it is superfluous to postulate a sodium pump to keep the cell level of Na+low. Dynamically structured water does it perfectly without continued energy expenditure. The end product of all energy metabolisms is adenosine tri­phosphate or ATP (which does not contain high usable energyas once widely but erroneously believed). As the major controlling agent, ATP controls virtually all living phenomena. Like all cardinal adsorbents, ATP achieves its control by means of both short­range electronic effect and falling­domino­like long­range effect. In broad terms, life comprises being alive and engaging in life activities. ATP’s continuedbinding as such onto the NPU keeps alive the NPU as well as the ladder of all the increasingly larger living structures like cells, organsand organisms built upon the foundation of vast number of NPU’s. Reversible ATP disappearance spells life activity. Irreversibility of similar vanishing of ATP leads to death.

Gilbert N. Ling

The Association-Induction Hypothesis-42 Page Summary